The Use and Abuse of Antibioti essays

The Use and Abuse of Antibioti essays What is an antibiotic? What is this miracle drug that everyone talks about? There is a lot about antibiotics that we should all be more aware of. The word antibiotic actually means anti-life. The most common definition that we use for an antibiotic is: any substance produced by a microorganism that harms or kills another microorganism. There are many different kinds of antibiotic substances, most of them are natural products that certain bacteria and fungi (molds) produce and send outside of their cells. About 90% of the antibiotics we use today, are originated from bacteria. However there are a couple of antibiotics that were created from scratch in laboratory. These totally synthetic antibiotics are designed to inhibit some process previously identified to be completely unique to bacteria, and necessary for the bacterium to remain alive. Bacterium in the wild suffers a constant competition for available nutrients. Therefore if they can develop a substance that can cripple or annihilate their competitors then they have an advantage. So, even though these microorganisms do not have the ability to decide what substance to produce, through several mutations and additional events, they are capacitated to compete and consequently to survive more readily within their environment. We use antibiotics for a different purpose, of course, to help us kill harmful bacteria that cause us infection and disease. Scottish physician Alexander Fleming rediscovered in 1928 what Ernest Duchesne, a French Student, had initially discovered in 1896; the first and most famous fungus, Penicillium, which conceived the first identified microbial antibiotic, penicillin. Commercial methods for penicillin for human use were only developed in 1941 at the time of World War II. Howard Floerey and Ernst Chain made a major effort to try to make penicillin available to all of the British, U.S., and other allies in...

Phonology - Definition and Observations

Phonology - Definition and Observations Phonology is the branch of linguistics concerned with the study of speech sounds with reference to their distribution and patterning. Adjective: phonological. A linguist who specializes in phonology is known as a phonologist. In Fundamental Concepts in Phonology (2009), Ken Lodge observes that phonology is about differences of meaning signaled by sound. As discussed below, the boundaries between the fields of phonology and phonetics are not always sharply defined. Etymology: From the Greek, sound, voice Observations on Phonology One way to understand the subject matter of phonology is to contrast it with other fields within linguistics. A very brief explanation is that phonology is the study of sound structures in language, which is different from the study of sentence structures (syntax), word structures (morphology), or how languages change over time (historical linguistics). But this is insufficient. An important feature of the structure of a sentence is how it is pronouncedits sound structure. The pronunciation of a given word is also a fundamental part of the structure of a word. And certainly the principles of pronunciation in a language are subject to change over time. So phonology has a relation to numerous domains of linguistics.(David Odden, Introducing Phonology, 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2013)The Aim of PhonologyThe aim of phonology is to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages and to explain the variations that occur. We begin by analyzing an indiv idual language to determine which sound units are used and which patterns they formthe languages sound system. We then compare the properties of different sound systems, and work out hypotheses about the rules underlying the use of sounds in particular groups of languages. Ultimately, phonologists want to make statements that apply to all languages. . . .Whereas phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds, phonology studies the way in which a languages speakers systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. There is a further way of drawing the distinction. No two speakers have anatomically identical vocal tracts, and thus no one produces sounds in exactly the same way as anyone else. . . . Yet when using our language we are able to discount much of this variation, and focus on only those sounds, or properties of sound, that are important for the communication of meaning. We think of our fellow speakers as using the same sounds, even though acoustically they are not. Phonology is the study of how we find order within the apparent chaos of speech sounds.(David Crystal, How Language Works. Overlook Press, 2005)- When we talk about the sound system of English, we are referring to the number of phonemes which are used in a language and to how they are organized.(David Crystal, The Cambridge Encylopedia of the English Language, 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press, 2003)Phoneme Systems[P]honology is not only about phonemes and allophones. Phonology also concerns itself with the principles governing the phoneme systemsthat is, with what sounds languages like to have, which sets of sounds are most common (and why) and which are rare (and also why). It turns out that there are prototype-based explanations for why the phoneme system of the languages of the world have the sounds that they do, with physiological/acoustic/perceptual explanations for the preference for some sounds over others.(Geoffrey S. Nathan, Phonology: A Cognitive Grammar Introduction. John Benjamins, 2008) The Phonetics-Phonology InterfacePhonetics interfaces with phonology in three ways. First, phonetics defines distinctive features. Second, phonetics explains many phonological patterns. These two interfaces constitute what has come to be called the substantive grounding of phonology (Archangeli Pulleyblank, 1994). Finally, phonetics implements phonological representations.The number and depth of these interfaces is so great that one is naturally moved to ask how autonomous phonetics and phonology are from one another and whether one can be largely reduced to the other. The answers to these questions in the current literature could not differ more. At one extreme, Ohala (1990b) argues that there is in fact no interface between phonetics and phonology because the latter can largely if not completely be reduced to the former. At the opposite extreme, Hale Reiss (2000b) argue for excluding phonetics entirely from phonology because the latter is about computation, while the former is ab out something else. Between these extremes is a large variety of other answers to these questions . . ..(John Kingston, The Phonetics-Phonology Interface. The Cambridge Handbook of Phonology, ed. by Paul de Lacy. Cambridge University Press, 2007) Phonemics and PhonologyPhonemics is the study of phonemes in their various aspects, i.e. their establishment, description, occurrence, arrangement, etc. Phonemes fall under two categories, segmental or linear phonemes and suprasegmental or non-linear phonemes  . . .. The term phonemics, with the above-mentioned sense attached to it,  was widely used in the heyday of post-Bloomfieldian linguistics in America, in particular from the 1930s to the 1950s, and continues to be used by present-day post-Bloomfieldians. Note in this connection that Leonard Bloomsfield (1887-1949) used the term phonology, not phonemics, and talked about primary phonemes and secondary phonemes while using the adjectival form phonemic elsewhere. The term phonology, not phonemics, is generally used by contemporary linguists of other schools.(Tsutomu Akamatsu, Phonology. The  Linguistics Encyclopedia, 2nd ed., edited by  Kirsten Malmkjaer. Routledge, 2004)​ Pronunciation: fah-NOL-ah-gee

Wire Systems in Telecommunications Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Wire Systems in Telecommunications - Essay Example He is still using these techniques. Initially, he was bound to serve his purpose through the medium of nature since he opened eye in its lap and there was no other techno logy or resources available for this purpose. Historical Background: Relationship to the Needs of the Society Native Americans, in ancient times, used a distinctive technique for communication called smoke signals. This may be termed as the first and foremost means of signal based communication. In this technique, columns or puffs of smoke were dispatched into the air in different shapes and frequencies on encoding side. On the other decoding side, signals would be perceived as desired by the signaler. These smoke signals cannot be declared or rated precisely a full language, but were typically used as short signals of communication. Some of the standard signals even retain information today. For example, one puff of smoke dispatched into the air was supposed to signal intended viewer’s attention. While, on t he other hand, two puffs meant nothing dangerous and every thing is all right. Contrary to this, three puffs signal hazard, call for aid, or merely some expected trouble. The smoke was produced by putting together green branches or leaves of grass into the fire. In this practice, blankets are used to direct the smoke puffs. Beside this, important events were also discernible by smoke signals. These events constitute war, birth, marriage or death. There were also light and heavy signals in vogue, each meaning variegated things. One meant good event, while the other meant bad news. The popularity or authenticity of this system can be viewed from this fact that this smoke signals methods being the old form of Native American communication, are still used today by the strategic personnel. As far as the mechanism of production and comprehension of these signals was concerned, it was not random. Every thing was calculated and sensitive frequency oriented, though, not as sophisticated and digitalized calculated as contemporary technology. One can consider smoke signals as a visual telegraph. The viewer can see smoke signals over a stretched distance, and decode the smoke to interpret the nature of message. In order to create smoke signals, put a blanket over the fire. Afterwards, include grass and newly born green branches to generate more smoke. To launch a short puff of smoke, raise the cover hurriedly, then put it down again. For long puffs of smoke, intuitively manage to raise the cover for a longer but for tentatively accurate time. Coordinate and manage time and distance ratio with a specific speed to get the target or desired length of the puffs. Variation of puff sends a distinctive message. Smoke signals cannot be asserted as standardized. The users, then using the required code, always conclude the target for communication. In digitalized technology today, to log on means to enter a specific cyber account or to turn our computers on. In the same way, for sm oke signals, the signalers also log on, by adding logs to this fire or smoke. Wire System Communication Advancement in Canada and US During the next decade we will see a change in the way we communicate with machines and the equipment that we use. The user will respond directly to questions that their equipment asks them with the technology having voice recognition of the user's voice. Improved shopping systems will help businesses order what they need while the persons are at home, on the road, or flying to a business venture. Live video will become a wave of the future replacing conventional communications. Some experts believe that virtual reality could take over the video feeds period. With the growth of technology

Business to Business Office Depot Inc Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Business to Business Office Depot Inc - Essay Example Office Depot Inc. recorded revenues of $14,278.9 million during the fiscal year ended December 2005, an increase of 5.3% over 2004. Company could not translate this increase into profitability owing to some intense competition in the sector. As a result the company could generate an operating profit of $348 million during FY 2005, a decrease of 34.3% over 2004 while the net profit was $273.8 million in fiscal year 2005, a decrease of 18.4% over 2004. However the quarterly results for FY 2006 have been quite encouraging so far. The final figures for third quarter indicate an operating profit of $55 millions as compared to $42 million for the same period in 2005. Company is now on a massive expansion spree with newer acquisitions like Papirius with operations in Czech Republic, Lithuania, Hungary and Slovakia. Office Depot has also entered the biggest consumer market and one of the fastest growing economies i.e. China with the acquisition of AsiaEC, one of the largest dealers of office products and services in China. It is worthwhile here to mention that the company is not dealing with too many retail customers, therefore it is not possible to interview the retail customers as such. The best method to study and analyze a company operating in B2B environment is; i. To sift through the reports from some of the marketing agencies, company's quarterly/ annual reports, newspapers and journals ii. Speaking to some of the business customers and gathering their feedback. Therefore, I carried out this research mainly by studying and analyzing the latest Internal reports, annual reports/ quarterly reports of Office Depot, market research by Datamonitor, newspapers, Journals and other printed materials. In addition I also studied the reports of some of its competitors like Circuit City Group Inc., IKON Office Solutions, Inc., Staples, Inc., Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., and United Stationers Inc. SWOT analysis Office Depot is the second largest office products company in the US selling a wide range of office supplies, business machines, computers office furniture and related products through superstores in major regions like North America, Europe and Japan, besides using other channels like contract delivery sales force, and the internet. As compared to other divisions, the North American delivery division has recorded strong growth in fiscal year 2005. Strengths Strong Brand Image: Though a relatively newer company, but Office Depot has been able to establish a strong brand image. In the US, Office Depot has become synonymous with office products. Adopting the tagline "Taking Care of Business" into its logo has further given it a unique identity. The company has successfully finalized a multi-year alliance with NASCAR under which it became NASCAR's official office products partner. This has helped in boosting the brand visibility of Office Depot products. While entering newer markets, like the Asian subcontinent, a strong brand image helps in an easy and formidable entry. Balanced Product Mix: Product mix of Office Depot includes branded office products and own brands with general office supplies, computer supplies, business machines and related supplies, and office furniture under various labels, including Office

Book Review on Home by Marilynne Robinson Essay Example for Free

Book Review on Home by Marilynne Robinson Essay Lost and alone, will Glory and Jack find themselves? Will they know what family truly means? Perhaps, all they simply need is one another and their father. Glory had been grief-stricken, being left by the man she trusted, leaving her with nothing but to return to the old house in Iowa, where her frail dad lives alone. There she was, feeling neglected and worthless while, along with her father, awaits the surprising return of her long lost brother, Jack. A man with a troubled past and in an uncertain state, Jack comes home looking distressed but grateful. He was different among his siblings ever since, enjoying the thrill of creating troubles but deep inside, he is a good and caring person. Unfortunately, guilt has eaten him. Remorse caused by the wrong decisions he had made towards his dear ones and the unwillingness to forgive himself. While the two are battling their own wars, their father is trying to make amends with them because he, too, is feeling like a failure as a dad, especially to Jack. He was not a perfect father but he tried to be, wanting what was best for his children. The return of Jack has turned the three lives around and also Ames and his family’s. It has opened the eyes and heart of each one, addressing to their many concerns and problems, internally and within the family. Jack and Glory had both found a confidant in each other, helping cure their personal pains little by little. The simple gestures and conversations they had had built a growing bond between brother and sister. The love and care shown to each other and their dad had compensated the past sorrows they had experienced. These have made Jack and Glory whole again, being the person they once were or hoped to be. After everything the Boughtons have gone through, all the troubles and heartaches, they were finally able to feel what happiness is through the realization that the family is the most important thing in one’s life because here, there is unconditional love and trust. Family is where they have found themselves, a place where they can truly call home. Analysis Nothing can compare to a family’s love for one another. Home is a novel about family. Robert Boughton had constant questions and worries about his children. He always seemed tired because of the sadness and guilt he feels for thinking he was a failure as a father. He has troubled children, showing that one raised in a Christian home has no certainty that he/she will lead a Christian life. It still depends on one’s own choice and apparently, Jack has not made the right ones. He has finally come home, but was almost unrecognizable and distant. He felt undeserving and surprised for being treated so well, though have caused much trouble, because he led a hard life while away. Jack is a good person, as mentioned by Ames who is evidently most irritated at him, knowing he has committed many mistakes and trying to become a better person. He struggles everyday with his dilemmas, feeling like a disgrace to the family, and wanting to be at peace but can’t seem to find it. Slowly, with his family’s help, he began to heal and change, but not wholly up until the end. Jack left, as suggested by his caring brother Teddy, for the sake of their ailing father. He did not want to cause anymore trouble and see his father suffer, but he did agree to come home if he needs help, realizing that families are forever. Both Teddy and Glory will be there. â€Å"But the soul finds its own home if it even has a home at all† Glory, like Jack, is lost, alone and bitter. She carries on life with a heavy heart, as she takes care of her ailing father and a problematic brother. Feeling hopeless, she seeks attention and fortunately, her two brothers show it to her. She understands Jack, but not completely because of his secretive character and he, too, understood her, her feelings and battles. As the story progresses, there was a growing bond between brother and sister, whether it was taking care of their father or sharing thoughts and opinions, though avoiding to bring up the pressing issues amongst them. Nevertheless, they became better individuals because of each other. The Lord truly is wonderful! The story was ordered chronologically, with the occasional recalling of the past. It started with the return of Glory and Jack until his leaving. It is equally about Glory’s and Jack’s internal conflict. The story revolves around overcoming the misfortunes each has encountered, due to appalling decisions, through the understanding and care of family. Another internal conflict was the minister, feeling like a failure as a dad. With these being the main plots, the subplots would be the relationship of Jack and Ames, together with his family, and the coming home of Teddy. The external problem was the coming home of Jack and Glory. He seemed distracted, causing worry to his sister and father and she, left unmarried, cheated, and alone. The narration of the story is character-based since the plot unfolds through the opinions and decisions made by the characters, not from having this setting to the next. No doubt that the story reflects religion, the uncertainty that everyone feels about it because there, as mentioned by Ames, is no absolute knowledge on what it really is. The stories among the characters parallel some characters and stories in the Bible such as David, Lazarus and The Prodigal Son. The plot evolved from the slight change in emotions. Glory began to feel needed and responsible in making her brother feel better and her father well, while Jack felt being part of the family. He saw and realized that his family would accept him for who he is and would try to do everything to make him feel welcome. In the outside, the plot was about the coming home and duties of both Glory and Jack, visiting of Ames and Teddy, and the parting of Jack. There were a lot of themes in the story such as guilt, loneliness, resentment and religion, but the main theme was the importance of the relationship among family members. It can help make everything much better, though slowly but surely. The theme is based from the belief of Robinson and I, definitely, agree with her. Family is the basic unit of society and is the foundation of every individual. The relationship among members should be strong in order for all of them to be stable and complete as each individual. Personal Application/Impression Home was a hard read. Though an avid reader, the book was more complicated and confusing compared to the fiction novels I normally read. The words have so much meaning and the plots were not written in a sequence, leaving me puzzled. I soon began to understand the context of the story and the meaning of those sentences that seemed too long after reading more. Marilynne Robinson writes Home in a reminiscing manner and with thorough explanations of the actions done by the characters. I have never read a novel as defined as this, enabling me to imagine the exact happenings in the story. Home has touched me, making me appreciate my family even more. I can feel the characters’ experiences when it comes to family, their effort to become closer and trying to offer help. It takes me from keeping my own problems to sharing it with my family because I now truly realize that they would accept me for who I am and help me with my troubles. The characters acted the way people actually do in real life and the settings were a possibility. Home truly is a beautiful and moving book, showing the importance of family. However; I did not enjoy the writing as much, though the storyline and intention of the author was wonderful. It was written with much effort, but a little too dragging and confusing. Maybe it was confusing because partly, I did not get to read the first book, Gilead, but the plots did jump from one to the other. Note that it is a must to read Gilead first for better understanding and appreciation of Home. The developing of the story was slow and some do enjoy that type of writing but I don’t so, it was a little dragging. It was hard to turn to the next page if the ending of a page is not as interesting. Robinson built a sturdy plot but bores some readers like me. It did not have action in every page but again, it is interesting for those who love to imagine being the character himself. A well-written novel, but no work of fiction is perfect for everybody.

Misrepresented Cultures :: Essays Papers

Misrepresented Cultures Horace Mitchell Miner spent much of his life educating himself on anthropology before writing his confusing but brilliant article on American culture. He was born in Minnesota and then moved to Kentucky, where he became a museum curator before becoming an associate professor of anthropology and sociology at the University of Michigan at one point in his career. Although he was a member of the Executive Committee of the Sociology Department he was not very active due to the fact that his work was mostly field based. For this reason many of his peers did not utilize his expertise. (website) It is also evident that he was an expert in his field by his history in the anthropology field. It is quite possible Miner was offended at the fact no one cared to consult him on issues or discuss things with him, and he wanted to show them that his opinions were worth hearing. This is probably the reason he proceeded to write the article â€Å"Body Rituals Among the Nacirema.† He was quite brilliant in his writing of this article. In it, Miner writes about the people who take human behavior to an extreme, The Nacirema, who present many unusual aspects but yet they are poorly understood. Though their origin is unknown they are a North American group who is devoted to economic pursuits whose days are spent mostly in ritual activity. According to Miner, these activities are towards the human body. â€Å"They believe it is ugly and its natural tendency is to debility and disease.†(Miner) Each home contains at least one or more shrine. The shrines are accompanied in particular rites. The focus of the shrine is a charm box in the wall which contains all the medical potions. Each day every member in the family at different times must bow and perform a rite to this shrine. Since, they believe the mouth has a supernatural influence and a daily mouth-rite must be performed. Once or twice a year the people seek out the holy-mouth-man. When people get sick the visit a medicine man at their temples called latispos. Many temples will not accept people if they do not give a rich enough gift. Most will not even allow a person to leave if they do not give another gift. The ceremonies involve much discomfort and torture. Another type of person in the culture is called a â€Å"listener,† who exorcises devils from children. Misrepresented Cultures :: Essays Papers Misrepresented Cultures Horace Mitchell Miner spent much of his life educating himself on anthropology before writing his confusing but brilliant article on American culture. He was born in Minnesota and then moved to Kentucky, where he became a museum curator before becoming an associate professor of anthropology and sociology at the University of Michigan at one point in his career. Although he was a member of the Executive Committee of the Sociology Department he was not very active due to the fact that his work was mostly field based. For this reason many of his peers did not utilize his expertise. (website) It is also evident that he was an expert in his field by his history in the anthropology field. It is quite possible Miner was offended at the fact no one cared to consult him on issues or discuss things with him, and he wanted to show them that his opinions were worth hearing. This is probably the reason he proceeded to write the article â€Å"Body Rituals Among the Nacirema.† He was quite brilliant in his writing of this article. In it, Miner writes about the people who take human behavior to an extreme, The Nacirema, who present many unusual aspects but yet they are poorly understood. Though their origin is unknown they are a North American group who is devoted to economic pursuits whose days are spent mostly in ritual activity. According to Miner, these activities are towards the human body. â€Å"They believe it is ugly and its natural tendency is to debility and disease.†(Miner) Each home contains at least one or more shrine. The shrines are accompanied in particular rites. The focus of the shrine is a charm box in the wall which contains all the medical potions. Each day every member in the family at different times must bow and perform a rite to this shrine. Since, they believe the mouth has a supernatural influence and a daily mouth-rite must be performed. Once or twice a year the people seek out the holy-mouth-man. When people get sick the visit a medicine man at their temples called latispos. Many temples will not accept people if they do not give a rich enough gift. Most will not even allow a person to leave if they do not give another gift. The ceremonies involve much discomfort and torture. Another type of person in the culture is called a â€Å"listener,† who exorcises devils from children.

Violating Social Norms Essay

Social norms are the shared expectations of what kind of behavior is acceptable and what isn’t. Violating social norms can be very amusing for the person who’s doing it, but can sometimes gather very hostile reactions from those around you. Violating personal space, standing on the wrong side of the escalator, walking on the wrong side of the sidewalk, wearing your clothes backwards and paying with change are just a few examples of how social norms can be broken. My partner Jordyn and I proved with our project that stepping outside of the box and violating social norms isn’t always as bad as it seems. For starters Jordyn and I decided we were going to violate a social norm by going to a food place and paying with change. At first I felt really awkward because I wasn’t sure how the cashier and those around us were going to react but I just went with it anyway. Jordyn went first and I filmed her, she waited in line like normal and oddly enough when she pulled out the change it really wasn’t that big of a deal for anyone. The cashier was really nonchalant about it and even helped her to count the change, it was all very casual. The results I got when it was my turn were very similar to Jordyn’s I went up and ordered my drink and when he told me the total I pulled out my change same as last time and the cashier helped me count the change, he seemed to have no problem with the fact that I was paying with change which was actually very refreshing. It didn’t feel like anyone was being judgmental and overall I just felt very comfortable with the whole situation. In conclusion violating social norms can have varying results depending on the act you’re taking part in and the people that are around you while you’re doing it. I feel that our project was very successful because we broke a social norm but we didn’t show up with all pennies which would have probably gotten a better reaction, but in my opinion would be slightly obnoxious. I know that if I were in a cashier’s position I would be pissed so we didn’t take it that far. Regardless of the type of change we paid in IÂ  think we definitely displayed a great example of violating a social norm and I’m very proud of our uniquely found success with this project.

Principles of Macroeconomics Essay

An increase of government purchases occurs after a rise in aggregate output and employment. This tends to stimulate the economy, people then tend to buy more and save less. Therefore, it results to a higher importation than exportation, known as the trade deficit. The budget deficit increases the external deficits because the exports do not proportionately increase to counterweight increase imports. This explains that a large budget deficit raises domestic interest rates and the exchange rate. With a higher exchange rate the domestic products becomes more expensive and foreign goods cheaper. Hence, the import increases while export decreases. Resulting, the trade deficit to be enlarged. Consequently, to help drive the trade and current account of the balance of payments into deficit there is a combination of a higher interest rate and a stronger currency. However, to defend that the budget deficits mainly results from tax cuts that tend to reduce both public revenues and public saving; many researchers have justified the Ricardian equivalence hypothesis. Nevertheless, these tax cuts are effective on reducing public savings and enlarging the budget deficit, equivalently they increase private saving by amount. However, Ricardo’s neutrality hypothesis recommended that the private sector views budget deficits as public investment and treats public and private investment as perfect substitutes. How do the CPI and the GDP deflator differ? Why do economists believe that the CPI overstates the rate of inflation? Is this an important problem? CPI is an accurate measure of inflation. When the price basket goes up so does the CPI. It is limited to what it measures. It only measure the prices of the goods and services purchased by the urban consumers which is about 60% of the total production of the economy whilst on the contrary the GDP deflator measures the total production in the economy. It also allows to show up in the deflator the as people respond to changing prices. With this approach, the GDP deflator is being rebound up to date expenditure patterns. Despite that CPI only measure about 60% of the total production, it helps people give the idea how it affects them because it measures the type of goods they buy. Moreover, it comes out monthly and available anytime. With the historical comparison, most of the time the CPI and GDP price deflator had the same inflation rate, and when there is a difference, they do not differ much. However, if the CPI differs from the GDP deflator, it is only by a fraction of a percentage point, even so this could be important for some economic policy decision. Many economists believe that CPI overstates the rate inflation because they think that CPI is not a good indicator of a current inflation. According to David Ranson, a U. S. economist, a better indicator of current inflation would be increases in the price of commodities because initially inflation affects commodity prices and it will probably take several years for this commodity inflation to work its way through an economy and be reflected in the CPI. It is not an important problem so long as one is using whichever measure is appropriate for their findings. Reference Quantcrunch Tutor (April 2009 ) Q&A in Macroeconomics http://qainmacroeconomics. blogspot. com/2009_04_01_archive. html

Mintzbergs Hypothesis for the Design of Organizational Structure Essays

Mintzbergs Hypothesis for the Design of Organizational Structure Essays Mintzbergs Hypothesis for the Design of Organizational Structure Paper Mintzbergs Hypothesis for the Design of Organizational Structure Paper The efficient design of structure of any organization requires the analysis involving some parameters and hypothesis. The main factors presented by MINTZBERG with the respective hypotheses (from H1 to H16) associated to the organizational configurations structures are the following: Related to the age and size of the organization. H1: How much older, more formalized will be the behavior of the people from the organization. H2: The organizational structure reflects the time of the sector. H3: How much bigger the organization, more elaborated is its structure (more specialized its tasks, more differentiated its units and more developed its administrative component). H4: How much bigger the organization, greater the average size of its units. H5: How much bigger the organization, more legalized will be its behavior. Related to the technical system: production for unit, production in mass and production for process. H6: How much more regulated the technical system, more formalized will be the operational work and more bureaucratic the structure of the operational nucleus. H7: How much more sophisticated (difficult to understand) the technical system, more elaborated will be the non operational structure, further ampler the selective decentralization of the assessors and greater will be the use of the linking instruments. H8: The automation of the operational nucleus transforms a bureaucratic administrative structure into an organic structure. Related to the environment. Everything that is outside the organization. For example: base of knowledge, customers, competitors, geographic position, economic climate, politician, etc. H9: How much more dynamic the environment, more organic will be the structure. H10: How much more complex the environment, more decentralized will be the structure. H11: How much more diversified they will be the markets of the organization, greater the propensity to divide itself in units based on the market. H12: The extreme hostility in its environment takes any organization to center temporarily its structure. H13: The differences in the environment encourage the organization to decentralize selectively in differentiated constellations of work. Related to the power H14: How much bigger it will be the external control of the organization, more centered and legalized it will be its culture. H15: The necessities of power of the organization members tend to generate excessively centered structures. H16. In determined times, the fashion induces and brings the creation of a structure and a culture â€Å"of the moment†, even in case that it is not appropriated to the organization.

The Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous Periods

The Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous Periods The Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods were marked out by geologists to distinguish among various types of geologic strata (chalk, limestone, etc.) laid down tens of millions of years ago. Since dinosaur fossils are usually found embedded in rock, paleontologists associate dinosaurs with the geologic period in which they lived- for example, the sauropods of the late Jurassic. To put these geologic periods in the proper context, bear in mind that the Triassic, Jurassic,  and Cretaceous dont cover all of prehistory, not by a long shot. First came the Precambrian period, which stretched from the earth’s formation to about 542 million years ago. The development of multicellular life ushered in the Paleozoic Era (542–250 million years ago), which embraced shorter geologic periods including (in order) the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian periods. Its only after all that that we reach the Mesozoic Era (250-65 million years ago), which includes the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. Ages of the Dinosaurs (The Mesozoic Era) This chart is a simple overview of the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods, all of which were part of the Mesozoic era. In brief, this incredibly long period of time, measured in mya or millions of years ago, saw the development of dinosaurs, marine reptiles, fish, mammals, flying animals including pterosaurs and birds, and a huge range of plant life. The largest dinosaurs did not emerge until the Cretaceous period, which started over 100 million years after the start of the age of dinosaurs. Period Land Animals Marine Animals Avian Animals Plant Life Triassic 237201 mya Archosaurs (ruling lizards);therapsids (mammal-like reptiles) Plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs, fish Cycads, ferns, Gingko-like trees, and seed plants Jurassic 201145 mya Dinosaurs (sauropods, therapods);Early mammals;Feathered dinosaurs Plesiosaurs, fish, squid, marine reptiles Pterosaurs;Flying insects Ferns, conifers, cycads, club mosses, horsetail, flowering plants Cretaceous 14566 mya Dinosaurs (sauropods, therapods, raptors, hadrosaurs, herbivorous ceratopsians);Small, tree-dwelling mammals Plesiosaurs, pliosaurs, mosasaurs, sharks, fish, squid, marine reptiles Pterosaurs;Flying insects;Feathered birds Huge expansion of flowering plants Key Words Archosaur: Sometimes called  Ã¢â‚¬Å"ruling reptiles,† this group of ancient animals included dinosaurs and pterosaurs (flying reptiles)Therapsid: A  group of ancient reptiles that later evolved to become mammalsSauropod: Huge long-necked, long-tailed vegetarian dinosaurs (such as the Apatosaur)Therapod:  Two-legged carnivorous dinosaurs, including raptors and Tyrannosaurus RexPlesiosaur:  Long-necked marine animals (often described as similar to the Loch Ness monster)Pterosaur:  Winged flying reptiles that ranged from the size of a sparrow to the 36-foot-long  QuetzalcoatlusCycad:  Ancient seed plants that were common during the time of the dinosaurs and are still common today The Triassic Period At the start of the Triassic period, 250 million years ago, the Earth was just recovering from the  Permian/Triassic Extinction, which witnessed the demise of over two-thirds of all land-dwelling species and a whopping 95 percent of ocean-dwelling species. In terms of animal life, the Triassic was most notable for the diversification of archosaurs into pterosaurs, crocodiles, and the earliest dinosaurs, as well as the evolution of therapsids into the first true mammals. Climate and Geography During the Triassic Period   During the Triassic period, all of the Earths continents were joined together into a vast, north-south landmass called Pangaea (which was itself surrounded by the enormous ocean Panthalassa). There were no polar ice caps, and the climate at the equator was hot and dry, punctuated by violent monsoons. Some estimates put the average air temperature across most of the continent at well above 100 degrees Fahrenheit. Conditions were wetter in the north (the part of Pangaea corresponding to modern-day Eurasia) and the south (Australia and Antarctica). Terrestrial Life During the Triassic Period The preceding Permian period was dominated by amphibians, but the Triassic marked the rise of the reptiles- notably the archosaurs (ruling lizards) and therapsids (mammal-like reptiles). For reasons that are still unclear, the archosaurs held the evolutionary edge, muscling out their mammal-like cousins and evolving by the middle Triassic into the  first true dinosaurs  like  Eoraptor  and  Herrerasaurus. Some archosaurs, however, went in a different direction, branching out to become the first pterosaurs ( Eudimorphodon  being a good example) and a wide variety of  ancestral crocodiles , some of them two-legged vegetarians. Therapsids, in the meantime, gradually shrank in size. The  first mammals  of the late Triassic period were represented by small, mouse-sized creatures like Eozostrodon and Sinoconodon. Marine Life During the Triassic Period Because the Permian Extinction depopulated the worlds oceans, the Triassic period was ripe for the rise of early marine reptiles. These included not only unclassifiable, one-off genera like Placodus and  Nothosaurus  but the very first  plesiosaurs  and a flourishing breed of fish lizards, the ichthyosaurs. (Some ichthyosaurs attained truly gigantic sizes; for example,  Shonisaurus  measured 50 feet long and weighed in the vicinity of 30 tons!) The vast  Panthalassan  Ocean soon found itself restocked with new species of  prehistoric fish, as well as simple animals like corals and cephalopods. Plant Life During the Triassic Period The Triassic period wasnt nearly as lush and green as the later Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, but it did see an explosion of various land-dwelling plants, including cycads, ferns, Gingko-like trees, and seed plants. Part of the reason there were no plus-sized Triassic herbivores (along the lines of the much later  Brachiosaurus) is that there simply wasn’t enough vegetation to nourish their growth. The Triassic/Jurassic Extinction Event Not the most well-known extinction event, the Triassic/Jurassic extinction  was a fizzle compared to the earlier Permian/Triassic extinction and the later  Cretaceous/Tertiary (K/T)  extinction. The event, nevertheless, witnessed the demise of various genera of marine reptiles, as well as large amphibians and certain branches of archosaurs. We dont know for sure, but this extinction may have been caused by volcanic eruptions, a global cooling trend, a meteor impact, or some combination thereof.   The Jurassic Period Thanks to the movie  Jurassic Park, people identify the Jurassic period, more than any other geological time span, with the age of dinosaurs. The Jurassic is when the first gigantic sauropod and theropod dinosaurs appeared on Earth, a far cry from their slender, man-sized ancestors of the preceding Triassic period. But the fact is that dinosaur diversity reached its peak in the ensuing  Cretaceous  period. Geography and Climate During the Jurrasic Period   The Jurassic period witnessed the breakup of the Pangaean supercontinent into two big pieces, Gondwana in the south (corresponding to modern-day Africa, South America, Australia, and Antarctica) and  Laurasia  in the north (Eurasia and North America). At about the same time, intra-continental lakes and rivers formed that opened new evolutionary niches for aquatic and terrestrial life. The climate was hot and humid, with steady rainfall, ideal conditions for the explosive spread of lush, green plants. Terrestrial Life During the Jurassic Period Dinosaurs:  During the Jurassic period, relatives of the small, quadrupedal, plant-eating  prosauropods  of the Triassic period gradually evolved into multi-ton  sauropods  like  Brachiosaurus  and  Diplodocus. This period also saw the concurrent rise of medium- to large-sized  theropod  dinosaurs like  Allosaurus  and  Megalosaurus. This helps explain the evolution of the earliest, armor-bearing  ankylosaurs  and stegosaurs. Mammals:  The mouse-sized  early mammals  of the Jurassic period, only recently evolved from their Triassic ancestors, kept a low profile, scurrying around at night or nesting high up in trees so as not to get squashed under the feet of bigger dinosaurs. Elsewhere, the first feathered dinosaurs began to appear, typified by the extremely bird-like   Archaeopteryx  and  Epidendrosaurus. Its possible that the first true  prehistoric birds  had evolved by the end of the Jurassic period, though the evidence is still sparse. Most paleontologists believe that modern birds descend from the small, feathered theropods of the Cretaceous period. Marine Life During the Jurassic Period Just as dinosaurs grew to bigger and bigger sizes on land, so the  marine reptiles  of the Jurassic period gradually attained shark- (or even whale-) sized proportions. The Jurassic seas were filled with fierce  pliosaurs  like  Liopleurodon  and Cryptoclidus, as well as sleeker, less frightening plesiosaurs like   Elasmosaurus. Ichthyosaurs, which dominated the Triassic period, had already begun their decline.  Prehistoric fish  were abundant, as were squids and  sharks, providing a steady source of nourishment for these and other marine reptiles. Avian Life During the Jurassic Period By the end of the Jurassic period, 150 million years ago, the skies were filled with relatively advanced  pterosaurs  like  Pterodactylus,  Pteranodon, and  Dimorphodon. Prehistoric birds  had yet to fully evolve, leaving the skies firmly under the sway of these avian reptiles (with the exception of some prehistoric insects). Plant Life During the Jurassic Period Gigantic plant-eating sauropods like  Barosaurus  and  Apatosaurus  couldn’t have evolved if they didn’t have a reliable source of food. In fact, the landmasses of the Jurassic period were blanketed with thick, tasty coats of vegetation, including ferns, conifers, cycads, club mosses, and horsetails. Flowering plants continued their slow and steady evolution, culminating in the explosion that helped fuel dinosaur diversity during the ensuing Cretaceous period. The Cretaceous Period The Cretaceous period is when dinosaurs attained their maximum diversity, as  ornithischian  and  saurischian  families branched off into a bewildering array of armored, raptor-clawed, thick-skulled, and/or long-toothed and long-tailed meat- and plant-eaters. The longest period of the Mesozoic Era, it was also during the Cretaceous that the Earth began to assume something resembling its modern form. At that time,   life was dominated not by mammals but by terrestrial, marine and avian reptiles. Geography and Climate During the Cretaceous Period During the early Cretaceous period, the inexorable breakup of the Pangaean supercontinent continued, with the first outlines of modern North and South America, Europe, Asia and Africa taking shape. North America was bisected by the Western Interior Sea (which has yielded countless fossils of marine reptiles), and India was a giant, floating island in the Tethys Ocean. Conditions were generally as hot and muggy as in the preceding  Jurassic  period, albeit with intervals of cooling. The era also saw rising sea levels and the spread of endless swamps- yet another ecological niche in which dinosaurs (and other prehistoric animals) could prosper. Terrestrial Life During the Cretaceous Period Dinosaurs:  Dinosaurs really came into their own during the Cretaceous Period. Over the course of 80 million years, thousands of meat-eating genera roamed the slowly separating continents. These included  raptors,  tyrannosaurs  and other varieties of theropods, including the fleet-footed  ornithomimids  (bird mimics), the strange, feathered  therizinosaurs, and an uncountable profusion of small,  feathered dinosaurs, among them the uncommonly intelligent  Troodon. The classic herbivorous sauropods  of the Jurassic period had pretty much died out, but their descendants, the lightly armored titanosaurs, spread to every continent on earth and attained even more massive sizes.   Ceratopsians  (horned, frilled dinosaurs) like  Styracosaurus and  Triceratops  became abundant, as did  hadrosaurs  (duck-billed dinosaurs), which were especially common at this time, roaming the plains of North America and Eurasia in vast herds. Among the last dinosaurs standing by the time of the K/T Extinction were the plant-eating  ankylosaurs  and  pachycephalosaurs  (thick-headed lizards). Mammals:  During most of the Mesozoic Era, including the Cretaceous period, mammals were sufficiently intimidated by their dinosaur cousins that they spent most of their time high up in trees or huddling together in underground burrows. Even so, some mammals had enough breathing room, ecologically speaking, to allow them to evolve to respectable sizes. One example was the 20-pound Repenomamus, which actually ate baby dinosaurs. Marine Life During the Cretaceous Period Shortly after the beginning of the Cretaceous period, the  ichthyosaurs  (fish lizards) disappeared.   They were replaced by vicious  mosasaurs, gigantic  pliosaurs  like  Kronosaurus, and slightly smaller  plesiosaurs  like  Elasmosaurus. A new breed of bony  fish, known as teleosts, roamed the seas in enormous schools. Finally, there was a wide assortment of  ancestral sharks; both fish and sharks would benefit immensely from the extinction of their marine reptile antagonists. Avian Life During the Cretaceous Period By the end of the Cretaceous period,  pterosaurs  (flying reptiles) had finally attained the enormous sizes of their cousins on land and in the sea, the 35-foot-wingspan  Quetzalcoatlus  being the most spectacular example. This was the pterosaurs last gasp, though, as they were gradually replaced by the first true  prehistoric birds. These early birds evolved from land-dwelling feathered dinosaurs, not pterosaurs, and were better adapted for changing climatic conditions. Plant Life During the Cretaceous Period As far as plants are concerned, the most important evolutionary change of the Cretaceous period was the rapid diversification of flowering plants. These spread across the separating continents, along with thick forests and other varieties of dense, matted vegetation. All of this greenery not only sustained the dinosaurs, but it also allowed the co-evolution of a wide variety of insects, especially beetles. The Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction Event At the end of the Cretaceous period, 65 million years ago, a  meteor impact  on the  Yucatan Peninsula  raised huge clouds of dust, blotting out the sun and causing most vegetation to die out. Conditions may have been aggravated by the collision of India and Asia, which fueled an immense amount of volcanic activity in the Deccan Traps. The herbivorous dinosaurs that fed on these plants died, as did the carnivorous dinosaurs that fed on the herbivorous dinosaurs. The way was now clear for the evolution and adaptation of the dinosaurs successors, the mammals, during the ensuing Tertiary period.

Medical School Essays Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Medical School Essays - Essay Example I then decided to become a doctor and to concentrate on medical research. Moreover, I have learned to value my education more, and this premium is reflected in the numerous academic accolades and scholarships that I have received during the last four years of my education. My parents are Mexican immigrants; while poor, they have lofty ambitions for their children. Because of our financial constraints, I have learned to live up to the responsibility of supporting them financially. I am able to provide my family with strength and inspiration because of my doggedness in obtaining a medical degree despite our poverty. They have also been edified by my example of struggling to learn the English language, and they too have taken courage to learn the language. I grew up in a neighborhood that was distinguished by poverty, with predominantly blue-collar workers. Because majority of residents were minimum wage earners, the neighborhood was characterized by crime and violence. I have been exposed to communities that lived in dire poverty, and I have witnessed their need for decent healthcare. This is also one of my motivators in pursuing a medical degree. This has developed in me compassion for the poor, and an authentic desire to help. My ethnic heritage has not hindered my social growth as a whole, but it had in the past affected my ambition to further my education financially. But my family’s difficult financial circumstances and my chance to witness poverty in the immediate community has given me all the more reason to work hard towards obtaining a medical degree. Perhaps, through my example, my family and my neighborhood will realize that poverty is not a reason for ignorance and for not going after your dreams. While it may be i ronic, I have taken inspiration from all these difficult circumstances that I grew up in. My