Importance of Authenticity in Tourism

Importance of Authenticity in Tourism How important is authenticity in tourism? Introduction The purpose of this study record is to explore the theme of authenticity as expounded by different authors. The record will provide an overview of my reading during the course of the year, and will present an examination of the different approaches to the topic by the selected authors, and present these approaches in the wider context of writing on the importance of authenticity in tourism. Daniel Boorstin (1964, 1985) The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-Events in America. 2nd ed. New York: Athenaeum Boorstin writes about the demise of the traveller who seeks authentic experiences and the rise of mass tourism. For Boorstin, real travel belonged to a golden age that was now lost where whatever the traveller saw â€Å"was apt to be what really went on there†. Whereas contemporary travel was a pseudo-event made up of â€Å"specimens collected and embalmed especially for him, or attractions specifically staged for him† (1961:102). Boorstin was adamant that the tourist no longer wanted authenticity, even going so far as to argue that a French singer singing in accented English was more appealing to the Anglophone tourist than the singer singing in her native language. Similarly, says Boorstin (1961: 106), the American visiting Japan is not looking for authentic Japanese culture but rather â€Å"what is Japenesey†. These contrived experiences had four characteristics, said Boorstin, they are not spontaneous or natural, they are designed to be reproduced, the relationship between the event and reality is ambiguous, and the contrived event becomes normal over time as it becomes perceived as being authentic. The theme in Boorstin’s book is that mass tourism is an impediment to experiencing other cultures and that the masses do not want to experience authentic culture anyway, preferring the contrived to the authentic. In reading Boorstin, his scepticism comes through very clearly but also you are left with a lingering sense of the author’s arrogance. True authentic experiences could only be encountered in the golden age when none but the truly wealthy could afford to travel. For Boorstin, the opening of the leisure market to a wider range of social classes ruined the authenticity of the experience for the privileged and the educated and gave access to travel to people who couldn’t possibly understand the experience except at the most base and contrived level. Boorstin’s approach was taken forward by MacCannell who disputed that tourists wanted pseudo-events and it is McCannell’s work we shall consider next. Dean MacCannell (1989) A new theory of the leisure class. 2nd ed. University of California Press. This book was first published in 1976 and appears to be cited widely in books and articles on authenticity in tourism. MacCannell writes from the perspective that progressiveness has failed people and people use tourism to give their lives greater sense and meaning, and in seeking sense and meaning in other cultures people are highlighting that they feel isolated and alienated in their own culture. Tourists’ disillusionment with the nature of work in industrial society drives them to travel and to travel further, as they try to penetrate the ‘back’ of life where truth and authenticity can be found. This notion of life having a ‘front’, ‘back’ and ‘outside’came out of the work of Goffman (1959) who used the metaphor of the stage to examine the perceptions of the individual to the performance. The front stage is the official perspective, while the backstage is presented as being more honest as the individual has an awareness of the disputes and difficulties that are occurring. The outside represents segregation where the individual is unable to gain access to what is going on on stage. Authenticity in tourism, says MacCannell, comes from an awareness of what is going on behind the scenes where all is not sanitised for public consumption. MacCannell highlights the falseness of the distinction between mass tourist, researcher, travel writer and authentic traveller and puts forward the view that the mass tourist is as much in search of authenticity as the researcher or travel writer. MacCannell notes â€Å"longstanding touristic attitude, a pronounced dislike, bordering on hatred, for other tourists, in a they are the tourists I am not equation† (1989: 602). MacCannell’s perspective particularly resonated with me as when travelling I have noticed people, including myself, wanting to distinguish themselves as separate from the masses, somehow being more distinguished or more credible as independent travellers rather than mass tourists. As well as noting the views of those who think that tourism will ultimately destroy itself[1], I’m also starting to recognise the irony of my travelling to seek an authentic travel experience while at the same time willingly participating in the growth of tourism. Howe ver, while MacCannell’s perspective does resonate, I would suggest that MacCannell’s position is on one sense just as polarised as Boorstin’s. From Boorstin (1985), we get the perspective that all that tourists want is a superficial and contrived experience, whilst MacCannell proposes that all tourists are in pursuit of the real ‘back’ and authentic experience but are denied this by being presented with inauthenticity. In reality, it seems likely that the truth would be some where in between. Erik Cohen (1995) Contemporary Tourism-Trends and Challenges: Sustainable Authenticity or Contrived Post-Modernity?, in Change in Tourism: People, Places, Processes, edited by Richard Butler and Douglas Pearce. London: Routledge. Cohen has written extensively on authenticity in tourism across several decades and as well as challenging existing ideas, it is clear that he has enjoyed conducting fieldwork and written a substantial amount on tourism development in developing countries. Cohen notes that while tourism has hugely benefited the country in terms of economic development there are significant downsides including the growth of Thailand’s sex trade and related criminal activities. Cohen breaks Thailand’s tourism development down into four areas of change. The first is what he terms the massification of the industry which denotes the huge rise in the numbers of tourists entering the country. The second is the dispersion of tourism, from Bangkok and its environs across the country from Phuket in the south to Chiang Mai in northern Thailand. Tourism is continuing to spread in Thailand, with tourists venturing into the Golden Triangle in the north and into areas such as Krabi in the south. The t hird change identified by Cohen in that of heterogenisation, which is the process in which the nationalities of the tourists and the variety of attractions and amenities become more similar. Finally, says Cohen, there is regionalization at work. This can be seen by Thailand’s positioning of itself at the heart of an emerging regional tourism industry in Southeast Asia which includes Burma, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam. As the tourism industry in Thailand develops, the Thai government is trying to encourage international tourism – due to its greater revenue generating potential – but is also trying to encourage domestic tourism. The reason for this is that domestic tourism minimizes foreign exchange leakage from the economy. The growth in tourism leads to continuing expansion into new areas and the further diversification of tourist activities, including the development of both natural and ‘contrived’ activities. How these activities will balance out depends on dependent the Thai tourist economy depends on Europe, as Cohen notes that European tourists generally prefer contrived attractions such as shopping, theme parks and entertainment facilities. There will also be an increasing discrepancy between the tourist image of an idyllic location and the increasing pollution and urban development of Thailand’s beach towns. The increasing development of Thailand has led so me to argue that there should be a greater focus on authentic tourism and ecotourism is particularly promoted by some writers (Bottrill and Pearce, 1995; Honey, 1998). Cohen, however, argues that ecotourism principles are applicable to any type of tourism and that stringent or exclusive definitions of ecotourism are unnecessarily restrictive. From Cohen’s perspective, most tourists engage in mass tourist activities as well as alternative activities. The desire for authenticity can be measured by the tourist’s willingness to forgo comforts such as comfort itself, familiarity and convenience in order to achieve what they perceive is a more authentic experience. Mass tourism and authentic tourism are not alternatives but a spectrum or continuum where the search for authenticity can be observed and measured. The importance of Cohen’s work is in how it has continued to challenge and develop our understanding of authenticity. As we saw earlier, McCannell’s (1976) scholarship focused on the concepts of alienation and authenticity but Cohen took this further. Cohen broadened McCannell’s conceptions and applied them to tourists’ perceptions of authenticity. Cohen has also developed the work of Boorstin[2]. As has been noted, Boorstin was very pessimistic about authenticity and his approach remained that of a sceptic. For Cohen, however, the idea of a universal authenticity was questioned and challenged. Cohen comes to the conclusion that authenticity means different things to different people and therefore what appears authentic to one tourist (or host) will not appear authentic to another. Building on this, we can see that the importance of authenticity can also be determined to be socially constructed, and its importance variable depending on the perceptions of the person considering the issue. This appears similar to the theoretical perspectives of the social constructivists where meaning is seen to emerge and is constantly changing. This view appears to have gained some following in tourism research with writers including Dearden and Mitchell (1997) and Sharpley and Sharpley (1997) sharing this perspective. Auliana Poon (1993) Tourism, Technology and Competitive Strategies. Oxford: CAB International. Poon writes about alternative tourism and puts forward the view that alternative tourism is more exclusive than mass tourism and is diametrically opposed to mass tourism in terms of consumers, production, technology and management. Poon argues that mass tourism comprises rigidly packaged and inflexible holidays when deviation from the package is rejected because of the cost implications that deviation would incur. There is also a mass replication of identical rooms or apartments to allow the operators to reap the benefits of economies of scale, and there is mass (undifferentiated) marketing again with hotel and holiday branding for reasons of economies of scale. Finally, according to Poon, mass tourism features mass consumption with little regard for the cultures of the tourist destinations. The alternative, according to Poon is a form of tourism that embraces flexibility and specialisation which provides a more personalised form of tourism. The alternative scenario also gives greater consideration to the tourist destination and actively considers culture and environment. The sustainability of alternative tourist destinations are therefore paramount under alternative tourism and attempts are made to pursue development in a culturally and environmentally sensitive and considered way. The motivation for tour companies to pursue alternative tourism can be seen in the potential it provides to differentiate itself in the marketplace. Mass tourism has saturated the market and to stand out to the consumer the travel companies must offer something different and authenticity is this difference. Having considered the work of Boorstin and MacCannell, and also Cohen, it becomes more difficult to accept a further attempt to present authenticity as a pure and exclusive form. It is easy to see that the concept of authenticity is useful in an academic sense, as a key component in a model, or a concept in which to frame a debate, but more difficult to see its existence in a pure form. In addition to considering authenticity as the polar opposite of mass tourism, there is another perspective: that mass tourism has merely reinvented itself into a more socially acceptable form. Fernandes (1994: 4) points out, â€Å"the mainstream tourism industry has merely tried to invent a new legitimation for itself, the ‘sustainable’ use of the environment including the preservation of nature as an amenity for the already advantaged†. John Urry (1990) The Tourist Gaze.London: Sage Urry notes the rapid development of tourism and uses a metaphor of an omnivorous creature to highlight what he sees as tourists devouring the planet in their ‘consuming’ of destinations. Urry (1990:1) states that when we travel â€Å"we gaze† and â€Å"the gaze is socially constructed†. The gaze is not a single gaze regardless of nationality or social class, but emerges from who we are and goes on to shape us and well as that gazed upon. Urry charts the development of the tourist industry in the UK and looks at the rise of mass tourism in Victorian Britain the development of the British coastal resorts, the mass tourism provided by holiday camps, and the introduction of a new flexibility from the 1960s onwards as people travelled to European destinations. Mass marketing provided representative images which gave tourists an understanding of the destinations available and these are duplicated in the destinations themselves and in place promotion. Urry urges the development of the post-mass marketing tourist or what he calls that post-tourist who seeks to find authenticity and shirk the artificial and staged events offered by the tourism operators. This builds on Cohen’s work which argued that the local culture becomes a contrived commodity and, without people’s consent, operators take local culture and renders it meaningless. Urry’s work has come under criticism with some arguing that he has over-stated the decline of mass tourism. Indeed, package holidays to Orlando and Phuket appear to have a great deal in common in terms of fun and pleasure seeking as the mass tourism in Blackpool of earlier generations. Urry’s ‘gaze’ has been criticised as being inadequate; Prentice (2001) puts forward the need to look at the subjective mental state felt by individuals while Ooi (2002) argues that the subjective nature of experience means that as well as being multi-faceted, â€Å"experiences are embodies in people† and can â€Å"only be expressed to and not felt by other people†. Ning Wang (2000) Tourism and Modernity: A Sociological Analysis. Tourism Social Science Series. Oxford: Pergamon. Having read perspectives from the objectivists Boorstin and MacCannell, and the social constructivist perspectives, it was interesting to see how Wang appeared to bring these perspectives together with a postmodernist perspective, based on the work of Baudrillard and others. Wang argues that authenticity should be broken down into authenticity of object and authenticity of experience. Authenticity of object refers to the authenticity of what is being observed, and this is further broken down into objective, constructive and post modern forms with the post modern form rejecting authenticity completely, while authenticity of experience refers to a person’s own personal experiences. Wang puts forward the view that authenticity is not inherent and identified characteristics that can be attributed to the constructivist conceptions of authenticity, namely that there is no fixed origin of authenticity, that what we consider original and authentic can be contested, notions of authenticity are pluralistic, and that authenticity is often declared when something conforms to tourist expectations. Wang also put forward the idea that inauthentic experiences can become authentic over time. This process, which Wang terms ‘emergent authenticity’ was also put forward by Cohen and promotes the primacy of the tourist perception of the experience and, as Picard and Robinson remind us, â€Å"all events were once created† and that ranking authenticity is â€Å"highly questionable† (2006: 134). Wang’s focus on a person’s own experiences is interesting as so much of the debate on the importance of authenticity has been about the authenticity of the objects being seen. Wang notes that tourists are â€Å"in search of their authentic selves with the aid of activities or toured objects† (2000:360). This search for our authentic selves can be liberating, a desire for experiences that are outside of our daily lives, but can also be restricted by itineraries and other constraints. The importance of authenticity in tourism is, for Wang, a feeling or perceiving of authenticity rather than its fixed existence in cultural objects. Conclusions From this study record we can see that many writers have highlighted the importance of authenticity but there is inconsistency about what authenticity entails. For Boorstin, mass tourism ruined any chance of experiencing authenticity and authenticity that not something that the masses sought even if it were attainable. MacCannell considered that authenticity could be equally sought by the mass tourist or researcher but held that the tourism industry was denying the people an authentic experience. Cohen offered a perspective on authenticity that incorporated both the tourist and the host but offered the possibility that one party might consider an experience authentic while the other did not; Poon considered authenticity and mass tourism to be diametrically opposed, while Urry built on Cohen’s work and presented the view that culture had become such a contrived commodity that it had been rendered meaningless. Finally, Wang presented what is almost a capstone perspective, bringi ng in the earlier objective and constructivist perspectives to present a broader representation of the importance of authenticity as an existential experience. References Boorstin, DJ (1985) The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-Events in America. 2nd ed. New York: Atheneum Bottrill, C and D Pearce (1995) Ecotourism: towards a key elements approach to operationalising the concept. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 3, 1, 45-54. Cohen, E (1995) Contemporary Tourism-Trends and Challenges: Sustainable Authenticity or Contrived Post-Modernity?, in Change in Tourism: People, Places, Processes, ed. Richard Butler and Douglas Pearce. London: Routledge. Dearden, P and B Mitchell (1997) Environmental Change and Challenge. Oxford University Press. Fernandes, D (1994) The shaky ground of sustainable tourism. Quarterly Environmental Journal, 2, 4, October-December, 4-38. Goffman, E (1959) Presentation of self in everyday life. Penguin Books. Honey, M (1998) Where’s the eco in ecotourism? Connection to the Americas, 15, 2, March, 1-7. MacCannell, D. (1999) The Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class. University of California Press McKercher, B (1993) The unrecognized threat to tourism: can tourism survive sustainability. Tourism Management, 14, 4, 131-136. Ooi, C-S (2002) Cultural Tourism and Tourism Cultures: The Business of Mediating Experiences in Copenhagen and Singapore. Copenhagen: Copenhagen Business School Press. Picard, D and M Robinson (2006) Festivals, Tourism and Social Change. Channel View Publications. Poon, A (1993) Tourism, technology and competitive strategies. Oxford: CAB International. Prentice, R (2001) Experiential Cultural Tourism. 2nd ed. Edinburgh: Queen Margaret College Sharpley, R and J Sharpley (1997) Sustainability and Consumption of Tourism, in MJ Stabler (ed) Tourism and Sustainability. Oxford: CAB International, 231-244. Urry, J. (1990) The Tourist Gaze, London: Sage. Wang, N (1999) Rethinking Authenticity in Tourism Experience. Annals of Tourism Research, 26, 2, 349-70. Wang, N (2000) Tourism and Modernity: A Sociological Analysis. Tourism Social Science Series. Oxford: Pergamon. Footnotes [1] See McKercher (1993) [2] 1961 reprinted 1985

Environmental Effects When Species Become Extinct Essay

Animals are, like us, endangered species on an endangered planet, and we are the ones who are endangering them, it, and ourselves. They are innocent sufferers in a hell of our making. Now a days is common to listen that more and more kind of animals are going to be part of a long list of species in extinction called â€Å"the red list†, When a animal is endangered it means that they are disappearing fast or have a very small population. Every day we can see in the media the great campaign that is carried out to preserve these animals, as for example: they are keeping in zoos, they have attended reproduction, they have their habitat protected, and however, it is really necessary? Does it affect in something to the environment that a species extinguishes? Does it affects to humans also? DAVID M.  RAUP in his article called â€Å"The role of extinction in evolution (2004)† said: â€Å"The extinction of species is closely tied to the process of natural selection and is thus a major component of progressive evolution. In some passages of the Origin, Darwin seems to have seen extinction as part of natural selection; in others, as an inevitable outcome. † so why a lot of people are trying to defend the preservation of these species? Let? s analyze the reasons for which animals in extinction should be conserved. It remains all the scientists agree with which the extinction of the species has been part of the development of the earth during all its existence, According with Juliette Jowit (2010) â€Å"Extinction is part of the constant evolution of life, and only 2-4% of the species that have ever lived on Earth are thought to be alive today† When a species disappear, new ones emerge, it has happened during millions of years, such it is the case of the extinction of the dinosaurs or the â€Å"dodos†. In addition we have to bear in mind that to preserved a species is too difficult, this requires of big quantities of money, and not all countries has the possibility to do that. A good example is Ecuador with their project to preserve the â€Å"Yasunni ITT†. It is an extensive area of wild earth that contains big quantities of petroleum but it also has a great flora and fauna diversity. Ecuador requested economic help to other countries to maintain the petroleum under earth, but a great acceptance has not existed to this project and it is feared that to future the exploitation of this area will be unavoidable. On the other hand, there is not denying that researches show that the species extinction increases since the human appeared, and now days the rate of animals in extinction has been duplicated for many reasons, the global warming, habitat loss, hunting, pollution and so on. How it affects to the environment? Michael Evans (2011) says: â€Å"The more species disappear, the more entire eco-systems become vulnerable and would eventually fall apart as the links in the food chains become broken† It means that the eco-system is a big net where animals and plants are related each others, if some of them disappear, the others won? t have food, home or protection and they also will be in danger. Likewise humans can be affected with this deal, according with Michael Greenwell (2007) â€Å"Species provide economic value in the form of food crops, fuel wood and lumber, paper, and medicine†. The genetic information in species is also very important to mankind† Seen like that of the survival of certain animals ours also depends. I am entirely in favor of animal conservation because as we can saw, the animal extinction affects a lot in the environment, it’s certain that the variety of species and their habitats have an important role in ecosystem function and in the many services ecosystems provide. These include nutrient and water cycling, soil formation, plant pollination, climate regulation, and pest and pollution control. If we don’t have this benefits from ecosystem the life could be impossible. It is necessary that people, as thinking beings, should take the responsibility of preserving the life of plants and animals that compose the big planet called Earth. Let? s think about the Charles Darwin? s thought: â€Å"so profound is our ignorance, and so high our presumption, that we marvel when we hear of the extinction of an organic being; and as we do not see the cause, we invoke cataclysms to desolate the world, or invent laws on the duration of the forms of life! To sum up, Although extinctions are a normal part of evolution and it is almost impossible that a species survives forever, in the last times the rate of animals in extinction has been duplicated in an alarming way, by reason of this the ecosystem is suffering a imbalance with serious consequences for itself and for humans. For this reason it is indispensable that people realize the important of animal conservation, just in this way future generations will enjoy the wonderful nature that the Earth has.

With Reference to Acid-Base Balance Explore the Role of the Respiratory System in Maintaining Blood Ph?

School of Nursing, Midwifery and Interprofessional Studies. With reference to acid-base balance explore the role of the respiratory system in maintaining blood pH? ‘We live and die at the cellular level’ (Reid, 2011). Homeostasis is crucial for normal cellular function. Acid-base homeostasis is the part of human homeostasis and refers to the balance between the production and elimination of H+ hydrogen ions (pH) within the body fluids (William, Simpkins, 2001, p. 236). Metabolic reactions within the cells often produce a huge excess of H+.Lack of any mechanism for its excretion would lead H+ levels in body fluids rise quickly to the lethal levels (Tortora, Grabowski 2006, p. 1001); therefore the homeostasis of the right H+ levels is crucial for our survival. In a healthy person several systems work interdependently on maintaining blood’s pH (Sheldon, 2001, p. 23): buffer, renal and respiratory systems. In this essay I will concentrate on the pH of the blood in rel ation to the acid-base balance and the role that respiratory system has in maintaining it. Blood pH is a measure of its acidity or alkalinity. A pH of 7. is considered neutral in the systemic arterial blood within its narrow range of around 7. 35 and 7. 45. When the pH is greater than 7. 45 the blood is considered to be alkalotic and when the pH is lower than 7. 35 then the blood is considered acidotic (Sheldon, 2001, p. 23). Fig. 1: Diagram of blood pH scale: (JupiterIonizer, 2004) The acidity or alkalinity of blood is a result of H+ concentration within it, and this on the other hand results from the carbon dioxide concentration in the blood. Carbon dioxide is a toxic waste product generated in the oxidation of fats, carbohydrates and proteins within the cells.The gas itself is not an acid, but it reacts with water to form carbonic acid which then dissociates to form a hydrogen ion and a bicarbonate ion: CO2+H2O- H2CO3-H++ HCO3- The respiratory system helps to control the acidity of blood by regulating the elimination of CO2 and H2O through ventilation and on the other hand, blood pH (H+ concentration) plays a major role in respiratory control. Respiratory muscles belong to the voluntary breathing system and are controlled by the respiratory centre located in the medulla oblongata and the pons of the brain stem (Hinchliff, Montague, Watson, 2005, p. 605). Gregoire and Gallagher (2004, p. 24) suggest, that the breathing centre controls a number of inseparable parts, which work together to ensure that any inspiration is harmoniously followed by an appropriate expiration. Also, the frequency and the volume of air per inspiration are regulated. In order to regulate the breathing in an efficient manner, the respiratory centre must be informed of the need for the ventilation in the body mainly by chemoreceptors which are sensitive to the PCO2 (carbon dioxide pressure) or the pH of the blood. Those chemoreceptors can be found in the aortic arch and in the carotid a rtery (Thomson, Adams, Cowan, 1997, p. 1). According to Tortora and Derrickson (1006, p. 1002), the pH of bodily fluids and breathing rate react via the negative feedback loop. When the aforementioned chemoreceptors detect any changes in blood pH, they will stimulate the respiratory centre to alter the ventilation rate in order to bring the acid-base balance to its homeostatic level. When the blood acidity increases, the pH decreases and causes the chemoreceptors to stimulate the inspiratory area in the brain. This results in diaphragm and other respiratory muscles to contract more frequently and forcefully (resulting in increased CO2 excretion).This will cause less H2CO3 to form, therefore less H+ will be present in the blood, resulting in increase of blood’s pH. When this response will bring blood pH back to normal, its acid-base balance will be back to its homeostatic level (Tortora, Derrickson, 2006, p. 1002). The same negative feedback will respond, when the blood CO2 le vel will increase (increase in ventilation, therefore CO2 excretion from the blood, reducing its H+ concentration and finally increase in pH). Hypoventilation= CO2 = H+ =pH = Acidosis Hypoventilation= CO2 = H+ =pH = Acidosis CO2 CO2H+ H+ pH pH Normal blood pH (7. 35-7. 45) Normal blood pH (7. 35-7. 45) Chemoreceptors stimulate the respiratory centre Chemoreceptors stimulate the respiratory centre Breathing becomes slower and shallower Breathing becomes slower and shallower Chemoreceptors stimulate the respiratory centre Chemoreceptors stimulate the respiratory centre Breathing becomes deeper and faster Breathing becomes deeper and faster pH pH H+ H+ CO2 CO2 Hyperventilation=CO2 = H+ =pH = Alkalosis Hyperventilation=CO2 = H+ =pH = Alkalosis Fig. 2: Respiratory regulation of blood pH.Simple act of breathing also regulates blood’s pH.. When the ventilation rate increases, more CO2 will be excreted, leading to decreased H+ concentration and raise in pH. Contrarily, when the venti lation rate decreases, less carbon dioxide will get excreted, leading to its accumulation, therefore increase in H+ and decrease in blood’s pH (Tortora, Derrickson, 2009, p. 1002). As we can see, lungs and brain control blood’s pH minute by minute. When the respiratory system fails to control the pH of the blood through ventilation it can lead to respiratory acidosis or alkalosis.Respiratory acidosis is an excess of carbonic acid that is caused by conditions resulting in hypoventilation and CO2 retention. The major effect of acidosis is depression of the central nervous system (Disney, 2002, p. 281). When the pH of the blood falls below 7. 35, the central nervous system starts to malfunction, and the patient will become disoriented and possibly comatose as the condition worsens Respiratory alkalosis occurs in case of deficit of carbonic acid caused by conditions resulting in alveolar hyperventilation and CO2 deficit.First, the peripheral nerves will be affected leading to spontaneous nervous stimulation of muscles (spasms) and extreme nervousness. Severe alkalosis can lead to death as a result of contraction of respiratory muscles (Disney, 2002, p. 283). Although in this essay I am concentrating on the role of the respiratory system in regulating the pH of blood it is worth mentioning the role of buffer and renal systems in their connection to the role of the respiratory system. Renal system is the slowest mechanism in regulating of the blood pH, however the only way to eliminate acids other than carbonic acid responsible for raise in the blood pH.It helps to restore long term acid-base imbalance but is not quick enough to react in sudden changes (Powers, 2001, p. 312-313). The pH buffer systems are a combination of body’s own natural weak acids and bases. They exist in balance under normal pH, however when any changes in pH solution occur, they change their proportions to chemically restore the balance (Appel, Downs, 2008). The important buffer systems include proteins, carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffers and phosphates (Thomson, Adams and Crown, 1997, p. 53). Prolonged acid imbalances of any kind are not well tolerated by the body as they disturb its normal functions.A chronically over-acidic pH corrodes body tissue and if left unchecked, it will interrupt all cellular activities and functions. The blood pH has a serious effect on all of the body’s systems and that’s why it is important for the body to maintain its acid-base balance, as even minor deviations from the normal range can severely affect every cell in our body. Due to close connection between the respiratory system and blood’s acid-base balance any malfunctions of the respiratory system will lead to blood pH imbalances. Word Count: 1099 SCENARIO 2 (1000 words)With reference to negative feedback loops explore the role of the pancreas in glycaemic homeostasis. PLEASE TYPE YOUR ANSWER BELOW: Cells need a stable environment in order to su rvive. Negative feedback is the mechanism by which our body maintains its conditions at a homeostatic level (Guyton, Hall, 2006, p. 861). When the conditions exceed the above range of homeostasis, negative loop will release a hormone to bring those conditions back to normal. Contrarily, when the conditions exceed the lower range of homeostasis, the production of the second hormone will be triggered.Negative feedback loop requires a receptor, a control centre and an effector. Located in the body are eight major endocrine glands that secrete hormones. Blood glucose concentration regulation through the negative feedback shows, how the endocrine system maintains the homeostasis within our body using two antagonistic hormones: insulin and glucagon (CliffsNotes, no date), released in the pancreas. In this essay I will explore what is glycaemic homeostasis and why is it essential for the health of cells and therefore for the health of the entire body.I will find out how is it maintained wi thin our body by the negative feedback loops and what is the role of the pancreas in this process. Glucose is the main source of energy for majority of cells in the human body (Tortora, Grabowski, 2006, p. 614). Its molecules are broken down in the cells to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules, which provide energy for many cellular processes. Circulating blood delivers glucose molecules to cells and therefore the constant supply of glucose is reliable on the glucose levels being maintained at continuous and adequate level.However, it is equally important, that the concentration of glucose in the blood and tissues is not excessive (Paul, 1999). The homeostatic level of glucose is achieved through the negative feedback systems of endocrine system which ensure that the glucose concentration is maintained within the normal range of 70 to 110 milligrams of glucose per decilitre (Paul, 1999). In a healthy person the homeostatic glucose levels are restored by one of the organs o f the endocrine system- the pancreas. Fixed firmly in the pancreas is a large of endocrine tissue called the islets of Langerhans.Simpkins and Williams (2001, p316) suggest, that the islets contain two types of cells- ? – and ? – cells, are responsible for the production of glucagon and insulin. Tissues use glucose at different rates, depending on the metabolic activity (Simpkins, Williams, 2001, p. 317). More glucose would be used by our body during exercise than during the rest time. The concentration of glucose will also rise after a meal, when the nutrients are being absorbed. After the glucose enters the bloodstream (following food digestion), the ? ells detect that the blood glucose concentration has raised and release the enzyme- insulin (Tortora, Derrickson, 2009, p. 340-341). Insulin has several functions. One of them is accelerating the conversion of glycogen from glucose. Blood leaving the gut contains the absorbed products of digestion and then passes them to the liver. The liver cells contain enzymes controlled by insulin, which help to synthesize the glycogen, the polymer of glucose. Glucose absorbed from the gut is stored in a form of glycogen in the liver and some of the skeletal muscles (Simpkins, Williams, 2001, p. 316).Glucagon has the opposite role to the insulin. It stimulates the transformation of glycogen to glucose (Guyton, Hall, 2006, p. 861). The other functions of insulin include speeding up the entry of glucose from the blood into the respiring cells, increasing the cellular rate of glucose utilization as an energy source and stimulating of the fat synthesis from glucose in the liver cells (Paul, 1999). All these effects would together cause the decrease in the blood glucose concentration and the insulin secretion discontinuation (from negative feedback from declining levels of glucose).Contrarily, when the blood glucose concentration decreases (for example during starvation), the pancreas will respond by stopping the insulin secretion and stimulating the alpha cells to secrete glucagon. Apart from accelerating the breakdown of glycogen to glucose, it increases the breakdown of fats to fatty acids and glycerol in adipose tissue as well as it stimulates liver cells to increase the synthesis of glucose from glycerol absorbed from the blood (Paul, 1999).These effects will cause an increase in blood glucose level and the secretion will discontinue when reaching the homeostatic level (negative feedback). Blood glucose concentration declines Blood glucose concentration declines Blood glucose concentration rises Blood glucose concentration rises Pancreas stimulates alpha cells to release glucagon Pancreas stimulates alpha cells to release glucagon Pancreas stimulates beta cells to release insulin. Pancreas stimulates beta cells to release insulin. Increased breakdown of glycogen to glucoseIncreased breakdown of glycogen to glucose Homeostasis- normal blood glucose level Homeostasis- normal blood glucose level Increased rate of glucose transport to the cells Increased rate of glucose transport to the cells Increased breakdown of fats to fatty acids Increased breakdown of fats to fatty acids Increased rate of glucose utilization Increased rate of glucose utilization Increased breakdown of protein to amino acids Increased breakdown of protein to amino acids Increased conversion of glucose to glycogen Increased conversion of glucose to glycogenIncreased protein synthesis Increased protein synthesis Increased synthesis and release of glucose Increased synthesis and release of glucose Increased fat synthesis Increased fat synthesis Blood glucose concentration rises Blood glucose concentration rises Blood glucose concentration decline Blood glucose concentration decline Fig. 1: The homeostatic regulation of blood glucose concentration via the negative feedback loop. In relation to negative loop system, the glucose transporters that bind glucose are the receptors. The ? – and ? cel ls act as the control centres, as by processing the information from the receptors they act by releasing effectors- insulin and glucagon- in order to restore the internal conditions back to their normal level (Haaland, 2001). Maintenance of glycaemic homeostasis is crucial, as glucose is the only nutrient that can be used by brain to supply it with energy required for its functioning (Guyton, Hall, 2006). Contrarily, raised glucose concentration can produce a large amount of osmotic pressure in the extracellular fluid and lead to cellular dehydration.High glucose concentration will also cause loss of glucose in the urine, which can deprive body of its fluids and electrolytes. Long-term increases in blood glucose may cause damage to many tissues, especially blood vessels and can lead to heart attack, stroke, blindness and renal diseases. Any disturbances in the glucose levels will be an indication of disease. For example, raised glucose levels would be present in diabetes mellitus, C ushing’s syndrome, liver disease and hyperthyroidism. Contrarily, decreased glucose levels are present in Addison’s disease, hypoinsulinism and hypothyroidism (Paul, 1999).The most common of all aforementioned diseases is diabetes mellitus. In type 1 diabetes body’s immune system attacks and destroys the beta cells in the pancreas. This means that pancreas is unable to secrete insulin (Tortora, Derrickson, 2001, p. 341). People affected by the disease will need external source of insulin in order to survive Type II is the most common type of diabetes. In this disease insulin secretion is not reduced, however the tissues in the body become resistant to insulin over time. Person affected by type II diabetes can control their glucose levels with the medication and the right diet.Glucose is needed for the cells to function. Pancreas has a major role in maintaining right glucose levels as it is responsible for secretion of two antagonistic hormones responsible for th e glucose regulation. Negative feedback loop stimulates the pancreas to release the right hormone at the time to bring the blood glucose to its homeostatic level. Any disturbances in the secretion of aforementioned hormones can lead to many diseases and body dysfunctions. Any pancreas malfunction will automatically lead to blood glucose level disturbances. Word count: 1098PLEASE TYPE YOUR REFERENCE LIST BELOW: Appel, S. , Downs, Ch. , (2008) ‘Understanding acid-base balance’. Nursing. 38 (9), pp9-11. CliffsNotes Antagonistic Hormones. [online] Available at: http://www. cliffsnotes. com/study_guide/topicArticleId-277792,articleId-277669. html (no date) (Accessed 11 Jan 2013). Disney, J. (2002) Acid-base disorders. In: Marx, J. et al. Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts of Clinical Practice. 5th ed. Oxford: Elsevier. Esmond, G. , (2001) Respiratory Nursing. London: Bailiere Tindall. Gregorie, L. , Gallagher, P. 2004) Life Sciences: Anatomy and Physiology for Healt h Care Professionals. Edinburgh: Nelson Thornes Limited. Guyton, A. C. , Hall, J. E. (2006) Textbook of medical physiology. 11th ed. London: Elsevier. Haaland, W. (2001) Homeostasis. [online] Available at: http://www. bioedonline. org/slides/slide01. cfm? tk=25 (Accessed 16 January 2013). Hinchliff, S. M. , Montague, S. M. , Watson, R. (2005) Physiology for Nursing Practice. 3rd ed. London: Elsevier. | | | | Jupiterionozer, 2004. Are you overly Acidic? [online] Available at: http://www. jupiterionizer. om/are_you_overly_acidic. htm (Accessed 02 January 2013). Marino, P. , Sutkin, K. , (2006) Acid-base interpretations. 3rd ed. [e-book] Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Available at: Scribd. >http://www. scribd. com/doc/35400593/The-ICU-BOOK-Paul-Marino-Complete< (Accessed 3 January 2013). Paul, I. (1999) Blood sugar regulation. [online] Available at: http://www. biologyreference. com/Bl-Ce/Blood-Sugar-Regulation. html (Accessed 09 January 2013). Powers, A. (2001). Acid-Base Balance. In: Curley, M. , (2001). Critical care nursing of infants and children. nd ed. Michigan: Elsevier. pp. 309-321. Reid, J,. (2011) Undersatnding acid/alkaline balance. [pdf] Manchester: Integrative Complementary Wellness Centre. Available at: http://www. byregion. net/images/pdfs/1019_9. pdfn (Accesses: 06 January 2013). Simpkins, J, Williams, J. I. (2001) Advanced Human Biology. London: Collins Educational. Sheldon, L. (2001) Oxygenation. Thorofare: Slack. Tortora, G. , Derrickson, B. (2009) Principles of Anatomy and Physiology: Maintainance and Continuity of the Human Body. 12th ed. Volume 2. Hoboken: Wiley. Tortora, G. , Grabowski, S. 2006) Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. 10th ed. Hoboken: Wiley. Thomson, W. , Adams, J. , Cowan, R. , (1997) Clinical Acid-Base balance. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Triplitt, C. L. (2012) ‘Understanding the mechanisms to maintain glucose homeostasis: A review for managed care’. The American Journal of Managed Care, 18(1), pp. 4-27. [Online] Available at: https://secure. pharmacytimes. com/lessons/pdf/201201-02. pdf (Accessed 09 January 2013). Waugh, A. , Grant, A. , (2010) Ross and Willson: Anatomy and Physiology in Health and Illness. 11th ed. London: Elsevier.

Kant the Universal Law Formation of the Categorical...

Kant: the Universal Law Formation of the Categorical Imperative Kantian philosophy outlines the Universal Law Formation of the Categorical Imperative as a method for determining morality of actions. This formula is a two part test. First, one creates a maxim and considers whether the maxim could be a universal law for all rational beings. Second, one determines whether rational beings would will it to be a universal law. Once it is clear that the maxim passes both prongs of the test, there are no exceptions. As a paramedic faced with a distraught widow who asks whether her late husband suffered in his accidental death, you must decide which maxim to create and based on the test which action to perform. The maxim when answering†¦show more content†¦For example, the maxim could read, When facing a distraught widow whose late husband has driven off a bridge at night, and he struggled to get out of the car but ended up drowning, and he was wearing a brown suit and brown loafers, then you should tell the widow that he died instantly in order to spare her feelings. We can easily imagine a world in which all paramedics lied to widows in this specific situation. That does not necessarily mean that it will pass the second test however. Even if it does pass the first test, narrowing down maxim can create other problems. For instance circumstances may change and the people who were originally included in the universal law, may not be included anymore. Consequently you many not want to will your maxim to be a universal law. Likewise, if one person can make these maxims that include only a select group of people, so can everyone else. If you create a maxim about lying to widows that is specific enough to pass the first test, so can everyone else. One must ask if rational beings would really will such a world in which there would be many, many specific, but universal, laws. In order to answer this question, one must use the rational I for the statement I, as a rational being would will such a world, not the specific, embodied I which represents you in your present condition. You must consider that you could be the widow in the situation rather thanShow MoreRelatedKant s Notion Of Good991 Words   |  4 PagesKant’s notion of good; For Kant, he starts out by saying, â€Å"Nothing in the world—or out of it!—can possibly be conceived that could be called ‘good’ without qualification except a GOOD WILL† (Kant, 2008). Kant further explains this statement through the first and second chapter. 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